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Article Vol. 3 Sufficient Skills for High School but not Sufficient for College Articles Vol. 2 Role Modeling to Under Prepared Students Why Tutoring Matters: The interaction of a peer tutor and a tutee during scaffolding Articles Vol. 1 No.2 What tutors can do to enhance critical thinking skills through the use of Bloom’s Taxonomy Classroom Decorum: What’s Happening and Does it Matter? Multitasking: The good, the bad, and the unknown Using the Myers-Briggs in Tutoring: Understanding Type
Articles
Vol. 1 No.1
The State of Tutoring in America:
Changing the Culture about Tutoring What Skills and Whose Standards 6 Habits of a Highly Effective Tutor The Teaching/Learning Center and Technology
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Synergy Editor: Mike Zenanko, Chair Sufficient Skills for High School but not Sufficient for College Dr. Cora M. Dzubak Penn State – York
Information is not knowledge.
On most college campuses faculty frequently express concerns about the lack of student academic preparedness. There are complaints that new students are increasingly less well prepared for the rigors of college level work. They seem to have more difficulty solving problems in math, writing literate college compositions, and even studying effectively. Of equal concern is their inexperience with critical thinking, independent decision making, and application of what was learned. Too many students begin college underprepared but there is a combination of reasons for their lack of prerequisite learning skills. “Underprepared” describes a diverse group that varies with ability, educational background, income, culture, and life experience. It is risky to make broad generalizations about these students even though they share similar academic characteristics. We need to ask relevant questions that allow us to understand the reasons why so many new students are not adequately prepared for college level work, and especially the need to demonstrate independent and effective critical thinking skills. Once we better understand the etiology of under preparedness, we will be able to address the most significant aspect of the issue: a gap between the cognitive skills needed in high school and those expected at college. We will begin by first identifying the specific characteristics that distinguish underprepared students from more successful first semester students. Second, we need to understand whether under preparedness is a reflection of lack of ability, lowered high school standards, cultural influences, an increased focus on standardized testing, or some other yet unrecognized factors. Third, we will identify what measures can be taken to address the problems faced by these students in the college classroom. It is necessary to minimize the initial impact of under preparedness on their learning and their ability to be academically successful while providing them with the opportunity to acquire the needed skills. This chapter will address the significant changes in academic standards during the last decade as well as the role that socioeconomic status plays in contributing to the problem of underprepared students. The cognitive gap is a gap in thinking skills that many students experience as they begin their college work even though they might have been very successful while in high school. There are multiple causes for this problem. The solutions to the problem will require multiple strategies. Synergy Editor: Mike Zenanko, Chair Role Modeling to Under-Prepared Students Cora M. Dzubak, Ph.D. Penn State York Many college campuses are experiencing an increase in under-prepared students, a diverse group varying with ability, educational background, ethnicity, income, and life experience. By definition, "under-prepared" suggests that there are some areas of academic skill deficit. There are a variety of strategies that can be used to help students recognize the areas that, if addressed, will contribute to their college success. Effective role modeling is one such strategy. It serves to not only help the students recognize where they might want to make changes in order to increase the likelihood of success but also demonstrates the skills needed to do so. Before identifying the necessary and desirable student characteristics that can be addressed via role modeling, a definition of "under-prepared" student needs to be provided. Why Tutoring Matters: The interaction of a peer tutor and a tutee during scaffolding
Dr. Cora M. Dzubak
We know that tutoring “works”. Students have long reported that tutorial assistance is beneficial as they acquire new skills and knowledge. In fact, tutoring has become such an established activity on college campuses that it is often assumed that it will be effective, resulting in improved student performance. Although once associated primarily with poor academic skills or a need for remediation, tutoring is currently more recognized as a service that can benefit any student at some point in his academic career (Dvorak, J., 2001; Dzubak, C., 2008; Maxwell, M., 1994; Rabow, J., Chin, T., and Fahmian, N., 1999). An interesting question is why this activity with a peer tutor is so effective in supplementing the learning that occurs in the typical classroom. That is, what occurs during a tutoring relationship that is so helpful to the students that they choose to continue it for an entire semester? Dzubak ( 2008) discussed many of the interpersonal variables that are exhibited during effective peer tutoring. Some of these variables can be demonstrated in the classroom with the instructor but others generally cannot, given the nature of a typical college classroom. For example, one of the benefits of a one-to-one tutoring session is that it provides an opportunity for scaffolding to take place. The position of this writer is that it is the effective use of scaffolding during a tutoring session that has three distinct advantages over a classroom. First, it is conducted during a personalized, face to face, “social” interaction; second, it provides immediacy of feedback that is seldom possible in a college classroom; and, third, it actively engages the tutee in the process of learning. These three variables are the key components of scaffolding. VOLUME 1: NO.2 September 15, 2008 Synergy Editor: Mike Zenanko, Chair
What Tutors Can do to Enhance Critical Thinking Skills Through the Use of Bloom’s Taxonomy Dr. Jack Truschel, Ed. Psy. D. Abstract Tutors can be the critical force who can encourage everyday learners to become critical thinking learners. Most of us are aware that there are various practices and pedagogies, designed to assist students to learn specific content at colleges and universities, but are they used? What are the processes tutors can use to encourage critical thinking? According to Chaffee (2003), critical thinking is “Making sense of the world by carefully examining the thinking process, as well as to clarify and improve our understanding.” Critical thinking is going beyond rote memory and multiple choice questions and encourages the how as well as the why forms of thinking. Tutors can be the critical element that encourages this higher level thinking by the design and implementation of questions during tutoring sessions. Tutors can encourage the student to use a higher level of critical thinking and encourage the student to stretch cognitively. One method to accomplish this is to move the student from just knowledge / remembering based interaction to a higher and critical thinking form of interaction. This article will outline Bloom’s Taxonomy and provide the reader with methods as well as processes designed to encourage the student in becoming a critical thinker.
ATP Research Award 2007 Classroom Decorum: What’s Happening and Does it Matter? C. M. Dzubak, Ph.D. Penn State York Civility or Chaos? Historically, there are convincing reports and descriptions of problems in the classroom suggesting that incivility is not a new trend. However, there are also indicators that student behavior is somehow different from what it was years ago. What accounts for the observed change in student behavior and the increase in incidences of classroom incivilities? The outside world necessarily intrudes upon what was once the sanctity of the classroom. Rudeness and incivility are increasingly common in the real world, as demonstrated in the workplace, on our highways, and in the public schools. Regardless of faculty attempts to minimize the impact of the “real world” in the college classroom, students are raised on multiple modes of stimulation, multitasking, and instant gratification that promote immediate and interactive feedback. The classroom of old, based primarily on lectures and devoid of technology, has become obsolete. Is there more to the demise of classroom decorum than changes in teaching styles and the infringement of technology and societal norms into the classroom? The following section will include a brief history of classroom etiquette before we take a closer look at current issues.
Multitasking: The good, the bad, and the unknown Cora M. Dzubak, Ph.D. Penn State - York Introduction Multitasking is a term frequently used to describe the activity of performing multiple tasks during a specified time period. But what does it actually involve? Is multitasking the simultaneous engagement in various activities or is it sequential engagement in multiple tasks? Does it literally refer to actively performing more than one activity at the same time? Or, might it involve active engagement in a single activity while also passively processing another source of stimulation, such as auditory or visual input? Whichever it is, different types and levels of cognitive processing are required depending on whether tasks are performed simultaneously or sequentially. Can an individual simultaneously and effectively perform one hands-on task, visually monitor another one, while also attending auditorily to a third source of sensory input? In other words, does multitasking describe “engagement” in a single activity but also the frequent switching among several activities? Many people are certain they are performing multiple tasks at a specific moment in time. The above questions suggest the need for some clearer definitions and explanations of both multitasking and related information processing activities that are involved in the process. The first step is to define “multitasking”. Using the Myers-Briggs in Tutoring: Understanding TypeDr. Jack Truschel, Ed.D., Psy.D. East Stroudsburg University Introduction People perceive issues, problems, happiness, sadness, general information etc., in different and fundamental ways. We also have a propensity to attribute the way people react to problems or issues, in a unique manner. We may apply causal attribution (Kelley, 1972) such as asking ‘why’ the person behaves as they do. Why did the tutee not show up for their appointment or why did the tutee not begin to do the assignment as previously discussed? At times, our attributes are in error and at other times, they are accurate. We make these fundamental attributions in error because we have a tendency to believe a person acts as they do because they are “that kind of person”, (Van Overwalle, 1997). These differences, especially when in a one-on-one environment such as tutoring, can be especially challenging. People, in general, are motivated by different things and although there are many theories of motivation, I will briefly discuss three. Locus of control is the degree to which reinforcement is or is not contingent on a persons own behavior. The factors include "external" and "internal" control. Having an internal locus of control refers to the perception that positive or negative events are the consequence of one's own actions. This is in contrast with external locus of control which refers to the perception of positive or negative events which are unrelated to one's own behavior and beyond personal control (Rotter, 1954). Some of us are extrinsically motivated by items outside of us, such as being liked by others or enjoy being complimented. Others are motivated intrinsically, by studying and getting good grades. They feel good about themselves or feel they have accomplished something. Others set goals and strive to achieve them. The goal - setting theory states that for a person to be motivated, the goal must be clear, specific, attainable, and quantifiable (Locke & Latham, 1984 In this case, the person (tutee) attends tutoring because their specific goal is to earn an “A” in a specific class. The final theory of motivation I will discuss here is the expectancy theory which is also known as VIE (Vroom, 1964). The “V” stands for valence which is the desirability of the outcome. The student may come to you saying, I need to pass this class or else, my parents will disown me. The “I” stands for the instrumentality which is the perceived relationship between the performance and the outcome. Here the student may report I need to see a tutor to pass the class. Finally, the “E” stands for expectancy or the relationship between the effort and result. The student will say, I studied and expected to get a “B”, but I only earned a “D”. Here the expectancy of the grade and the reality of the student’s previous performance are not congruent. People have different motives, purposes, aims, values, needs, drives, impulses, and desires for what they do and why they do it. There difference can make the tutor – tutee relationship challenging and at times, frustrating for both parties. One quick method for assisting a tutor is to think of their interactions or behaviors in terms of the four letter code result of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The Myers-Briggs Type indicator is a tool that can highlight differences in our perception based on personal biases. It can assist our understanding of those differences by assisting in our ability to discern rationale for the behavior of others. We can also work on common issues (via communication) and develop a basic understanding of those with whom we interact. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was developed by Isabel Myers and Katharine Briggs in the early 1940's (Myers & Mccaulley, 1985). According to Renee Baron (1998), the initial development of the MBTI is based on the teachings of Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist and is designed to reveal basic personality preferences. Carl Jung's four psychological functions include: thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuition. The central theory of the MBTI is that behavior, which is susceptible to growth and development, is a product of a relatively unchanging personality type.
VOLUME 1: NO. 1 February 14, 2006
The State of Tutoring in America: Changing the Culture about Tutoring Edward E. Gordon, Ph.D. At a time of great controversy in American education, the role of the tutor and tutoring has been given new prominence by the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001. The proposed use of “supplemental services” has increased the interest level in tutoring on the part of both schools and parents. However, tutoring is beset by serious professional issues that may limit the effectiveness of these services for American schoolchildren. Many of these concerns are cultural, others strike at the theoretical and empirical foundations of tutoring. They can be summarized under four major headings:
What Skills and Whose Standards: Why Are Students Underprepared? Cora M. Dzubak, Ph. D. Penn State York Abstract It is quite apparent that “underprepared” describes a diverse group of students that varies with ability, educational background, income, and life experience. At the post-secondary level, there are several common questions that are pertinent to personnel who work with this group. First, what are the specific characteristics that distinguish underprepared students from other first semester students? Second, is underpreparedness a reflection of lack of ability, lowered high school standards, or other factors? Last, what measures can be taken to address the problems faced by these students in the classroom, and to minimize the impact on their learning and college success? At the post-secondary level, the initial source of the “underprepared” problem cannot be corrected, but rather the product, the skill level of students, can and is being addressed. In addition to examining the causes of underpreparedness, this paper with also look at what is believed to be a significant change in academic standards that contributes to the problem.
6 Habits of a Highly Effective Tutor Jack Truschel, Ed.D., Psy.D. Introduction Tutoring services are an integral part of the academic fabric which enables the students to excel in their studies. The best practices of tutoring services are those that provide the necessary ingredients for the student and also create a synergistic process to the learning environment. I have visited countless tutoring programs and interviewed tutors as well as students who were in the tutoring center and have synthesized these observations into the six habits of highly effective tutors. These habits include being proactive, assessing the student, developing a working alliance, modeling appropriate behavior, matching learning styles with tutor styles, and communicating effectively.
PINDER NAIDU Assistant Professor of Math Introduction Tutoring research is an expanding field, but the vast majority of studies have been conducted at the elementary and middle school level (Kenny, 2004; Lepper et. al., 1990, 1997; Cohen 1982; Graesser & Person, 1994; Lesh & Kelly, 1997). The research focus of many of the studies is primarily learning issues for intelligent tutoring systems for computers. These researchers are developing computer based "intelligent" tutors. So, despite the claim of these researchers that the findings and characterizations of tutoring from these studies are applicable to any content area, they may not address key issues of adult learners at the college level. I will give a cursory description of the current research that has taken place at the K–12 level on tutoring and tutoring strategies. Many of these studies focus on the educational psychology aspects of the interactions and discourse that occur during a tutoring session, and the effect of questioning on student achievement. I will describe what research into tutoring has shown about the cognitive and motivational aspects of tutoring and its structure. Research does reveal that motivation directly influences how often students use learning strategies, how well they do on curriculum-related tests, and how long they persevere and maintain skills after the tutoring sessions are over. Therefore, it is important to know what our students’ motivations are. Brophy (1998, p. 3) defines motivation as “a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior, especially goal-directed behavior.” The one-on-one interpersonal interaction and the characteristics of learners seeking tutoring give us the opportunity to explore the assessment of the causal factors of motivational change. The Teaching/Learning Center and Technology Mike Zenanko, M.Ed. Cathy Glover Burrows, M.A. Jacksonville State University Abstract The Teaching/Learning Center (T/LC) at Jacksonville State University supervises JSU student tutors in a one-to-one tutorial with area schoolchildren. The tutorial comprises Level II of the Clinical Experiences Program in the College of Education and Professional Studies. The T/LC was established so that pre-service teachers could experience working with a child in the age group and subject area in which they plan to teach. Technology has been an important aspect of the tutoring program since its inception in 1982. The technology used by the tutors has changed with the advances in hardware and software.
Synergy
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